Ancient Indian Scientists

From various archaeological findings we can find that during the growth of the ancient civilizations, ancient technology was the result of incredible advances in engineering in ancient times. These advances in the history of technology stimulated societies to adopt new ways of living and governance. This is all over the world either Gaza or Mohen-Jo-daro In this arcticle i will pick Indian References mostly for two reasons first - i know it better than others and Indian Civilization is most ancient of all.

However, many ancient inventions were forgotten, lost to the pages of history, only to be re-invented millennia later. when i think why these advancements kept so secretive i only come with one answer and that is " we were not ready to know such truth" or still not for many of them. We can see how we ruined the millions of lives, ecosystem and even now space too with the knowledge of many technology. However there can be a big debate  on this issue and i don't want to go there, for now. 

Many of their findings were presented to the public by wrapping them in relegional flavor so that people follow them due to fear of god, as it was most easy way to spread their scientific findings without getting revealing the techniques behind it. 

Here are the best examples of ancient technology and inventions that demonstrate the ingenuity of our ancient ancestors. So, get ready to be awed...

Saints or scientists?

I will start from the scientists of ancient times. Who were they ? Ofcourse they are not Scientist by the guidelines of present line -length defined by western standards. After reading texts and references you will realize they are those saints/Sages. Now another question is How they do it ?  The land of India is known to be the land of saints and Gods. It is filled with various types of unexplainable things. In ancient times, various saints after doing years of hard meditation, their work and with their patience found the secrets hidden in the Vedas 1,000 years ago. These inventions later came to be known as modern science. Some of the saints came out with such amazing inventions that shocked the kings of those times as well.

I know it is a very debatable issue that how Meditation can do such things. But i believe it can and in fact it is the best way. By meditation you increase the percentage of usable brain capacity and more you have ability to use your brain more you be nearer the truth. We can experience this in our own life as a child/Teenager we do a lot of things which we didn't do later in our life because then we were aware of other aspects of our actions.

The Indian Sage who developed Atomic Theory 2,600 years ago

John Dalton (1766 – 1844), an English chemist and physicist, is the man credited today with the development of atomic theory. However, a theory of atoms was actually formulated 2,500 years before Dalton by an Indian sage and philosopher, known as Acharya Kanad. Acharya Kanad was born in 600 BC in Prabhas Kshetra (near Dwaraka) in Gujarat, India. His real name was Kashyap. It was Kanada who originated the idea that anu (atom) was an indestructible particle of matter.An interesting story states that this theory occurred to him while he was walking with food in his hand. As he nibbled at the food in his hand, throwing away the small particles, it occurred to him that he could not divide the food into further parts and thus the idea of a matter which cannot be divided further came into existence. He called that indivisible matter anu, i.e. molecule, which was misinterpreted as atom. He also stated that anu can have two states - Absolute rest and a State of motion.

Bhaskaracharya

He calculated the time taken by the earth to orbit the sun hundreds of years before the astronomer Smart; Time taken by earth to orbit the sun: (5th century) 365.258756484 days. Born in the obscure village of Vijjadit (Jalgaon) in Maharastra, Bhaskaracharya's mathematical works called "Lilavati" and "Bijaganita" are considered to be unparalleled. In his treatise "Siddhant Shiromani" he writes on planetary positions, eclipses, cosmography, mathematical techniques and astronomical equipment. In the "Surya Siddhant" he makes a note on the force of gravity.

Newton’s Law, 1200 Years before Newton

“Objects fall on the earth due to a force of attraction by the earth. Therefore, the earth, planets, constellations, moon and sun are held in orbit due to this attraction.” The meaning of these lines is parallel to that of Newton’s Law of Gravity. But these lines are not said by the European scientist. They are said by an Indian - in Surya Siddhanta, dated 400-500 AD, the ancient Hindu astronomer Bhaskaracharya states these lines. Approximately 1200 years later (1687 AD), Sir Isaac Newton rediscovered this phenomenon and called it the Law of Gravity.

Acharya Charak: Father of medicine

Acharya Charak has been crowned as the Father of Medicine. His renowned work, the "Charak Samhita," is considered as an encyclopedia of Ayurveda. His principles, diagnoses, and cures retain their potency and truth even after a couple of millennium. When the science of anatomy was confused with different theories in Europe, Acharya Charak revealed through his innate genius and inquires the facts on human anatomy, embryology, pharmacology, blood circulation and diseases like diabetes, tuberculosis, heart disease, etc.

Charak Samhita

In the "Charak Samhita" he has described the medicinal qualities and functions of 100,000 herbal plants. He has emphasized the influence of diet and activity on mind and body. He has proved the correlation of spirituality and physical health contributed greatly to diagnostic and curative sciences. He has also prescribed and ethical charter for medical practitioners two centuries prior to the Oath. Through his genius and intuition, Acharya Charak forever remains etched in the annals of history as one of the greatest and noblest of rishi-scientists.

Sage Bharadwaj

In 1875, the Vymaanika-Shaastra, a fourth century BC text written by Maharshi Bhardwaj, was discovered in a temple in India. The book dealt with the operation of ancient vimanas and included information on steering, precautions for long flights, protection of the airships from storms and lightning, and how to switch the drive to solar energy, or some other “free energy” source. Vimanas were said to take off vertically or dirigible. Bharadwaj the Wise refers to no less than 70 authorities and 10 experts of air travel in antiquity.

Rishi Kanva

The science of wind has been explained by Sage Kanva in Rigveda sections 8/41/6 in Jagati meter of God wind. Sage Kashyapa has described the features and properties of this substance in Rigveda 9/64/26 in the hymns of God Pavamana Soma in meter Gayatri. Kanva was a great Rishi, a descendent of Sage Angirasa. He looked after Shakuntala when she was abandoned by her mother and father (rishi vishwamitra). Bharat, the son of Shakuntala was also brought up by him.

Sage Kapil Muni: Author of the Sankhya Darshan

Kapil muni was born equipped with rare intellect, dispassion and spiritual powers. He authored Sankhya Darshan that defined the term "Dhyaan or Meditation" as “the state of mind when remains without any subjectivity / objectivity i.e. without any thought (when the mind is away from worldly objects), is called the "Dhyaan or Meditation”. He teaches that there is an unbroken continuity from the lowest inorganic to the highest organic forms. The source of world according to him is Prakriti (fundamental nature).

Kapil Muni: Finding how the Universe was created

According to Kapil Muni, there are twenty-five principles responsible for the manifestation of the Creation (Samasara), out of which Purusha and Prakriti are eternal and independent of each other. Kapila is not concerned to deny the reality of personal God or Maheshwara. Yet his assertion is that, no arguments can irrefutably establish God's reality. Therefore, in his model of creation the Purusha (Spirit) and Prakrity (matter) are held solely responsible for creation, without acknowledging an Almighty and intelligent Creator, the God.

Patanjali: The father of Yoga

The Science of Yoga is one of several unique contributions of India to the world. It seeks to discover and realize the ultimate Reality through yogic practices. Acharya Patanjali, prescribed the control of prana (life breath) as the means to control the body, mind and soul. This subsequently rewards one with good health and inner happiness. His 84 yogic postures effectively enhance the efficiency of the respiratory, circulatory, nervous, digestive and endocrine systems and many other organs of the body.

Aryabhatt

He was a master Astronomer and Mathematician, born in 476 CE in Kusumpur (Bihar). In 499 CE, he wrote a text on astronomy and an unparallel treatise on mathematics called "Aryabhatiyam" He formulated the process of calculating the motion of planets and the time of eclipses. Aryabhatt was the first to proclaim that the earth is round, it rotates on its axis, orbits the sun and is suspended in space - 1,000 years before Copernicus published his heliocentric theory.

Sushruta

Born to sage Vishwamitra, Sushruta is the father of surgery. 2600 years ago, he and health scientists of his time conducted complicated surgeries like cesareans, cataract, artificial limbs, Rhinoplasty (restoration of a damaged nose), 12 types of fractures, 6 types of dislocations, urinary stones and even plastic surgery and brain surgery. Usage of anesthesia was well known in ancient India. He is the author of the book "Sushruta Samhita", in which he describes over 300 surgical procedures and 125 surgical instruments.

Varahamihira

Varahamihir's book "panch siddhant", noted that the moon and planets are lustrous not because of their own light but due to sunlight. In the "Bruhad Samhita" and "Bruhad Jatak", he has revealed his discoveries in the domains of geography, constellation, science, botany and animal science. In his treatise on botanical science, Varahamihir presents cures for various diseases afflicting plants and trees.

The galaxy is oval, Earth is spherical

Yajur Vedic verse: "Brahmaanda vyapta deha bhasitha himaruja..." describing Shiva as the one who is spread out in Brahmaanda. Anda means an egg depicting the shape of the galaxy. It was the middle east Europians and Greeks who wrongly believed that earth was flat. But Indians, since long have always known that it was spherical. In many scriptures, the word Bhoogala is used, Gola meaning round.

Existence of Atomic and Sub atomic particles

The world accounts discovery of atoms and sub atomic particles to Western scientists who coined these words and theories only in the early 17th century. An excerpt from Lalitha Sahasranama, told by Hayagreeva to Agasthya muni, dating back to the distant ages of the past,describes the Goddess as the super consciousness/Brahman that pervades even the sub atomic particles within matter. "Paranjyotih parandhamah paramanuh paratpara". The word "anuvu" means atom. Paramanu is sub-atomic particle, finer than the finest of atom, meaning electrons and the others.

Ancient times and nuclear weapons

Radiation still so intense, the area is highly dangerous! A heavy layer of radioactive ash in Rajasthan, India, covers a three-square mile area, ten miles west of Jodhpur. For some time it has been established that there is a very high rate of birth defects and cancer in the area under construction. Scientists have unearthed an ancient city where evidence shows an atomic blast dating back thousands of years, from 8,000 to 12,000 years, destroying everything most of the buildings and probably a half-million people.

Radiation still so intense, the area is highly dangerous! A heavy layer of radioactive ash in Rajasthan, India, covers a three-square mile area, ten miles west of Jodhpur. For some time it has been established that there is a very high rate of birth defects and cancer in the area under construction. Scientists have unearthed an ancient city where evidence shows an atomic blast dating back thousands of years, from 8,000 to 12,000 years, destroying everything most of the buildings and probably a half-million people.The Mahabharata clearly describes a catastrophic blast that rocked the continent. "A single projectile charged with all the power in the Universe...An incandescent column of smoke and flame as bright as 10,000 suns, rose in all its splendor...it was an unknown weapon, an iron thunderbolt, a gigantic messenger of death which reduced to ashes an entire race.” Historian Kisari Mohan Ganguli says that Indian sacred writings are full of such descriptions.

Ancient ultrasound machines? 

Using a variety of complicated instruments, gynecologists have gradually come to know how the embryo grows during the period of pregnancy. But the Shrimad Bhagavatam, 3rd canto, 30th chapter, gives a vivid description of the growth of the embryo in the mother's womb. If we compare the information given therein with the information given in a standard textbook such as the embryology section of Gray's Anatomy, there are striking similarities in the information obtained from the two sources.

Ancient science knows more than modern science?

The Vedas claim that there are living entities everywhere - even in fire. Modern science, however, presumed that no life could exist in fire. This presumption is in fact the basis for the process of sterilization. But recent advancements in the field of medicine have shown that microbes called 'fire bacteria' survive even in fire.

The incredible powers of the Ancient Siddhars!

Siddhars are a type of saint in India who are said to have had many powers and achieved a ‘god-like’ state through specific secret practices that were known only to them. These powers spanned from controlling time and space, to transforming the body, manipulating matter at the molecular level and achieving immortality. The Siddhars were followers of the God Shiva and according to different texts there were 18 of them. Their teachings and findings were written in the form of poems in the Tamil language.

There is a debate as to who was the first Siddhar. Some legends talk about Sri Pathanjali, who was considered to be an incarnation of Adiseshan, the celestial five-headed snake associated with God Vishnu. But the prevailing tradition refers to Agasthya (or Agasthyar) as the first Siddhar, one of the seven sages (or Saptarshis) as mentioned in the Vedic texts, and he was the son of the god Brahma of the Hindu creation story. 

Agathiyar is considered to be the author of a lot of the first Siddhar literature and he was supposed to have lived in the 7th century BC. About 96 books are attributed to him and that includes writings in alchemy, medicine and spirituality. Apart from the legends that exist, the beginnings of the Siddhars’ are lost in time. 

Ashta Siddhis of Siddhars

The powers that the Siddhars possessed were separated in categories. The main category included 8 powers called ashta siddhis: 

• To become tiny as the atom within the atom (Anima)
• To become big in unshakeable proportions (Mahima)
• To become as light as vapour in levitation (Laghima)
• To become as heavy as the mountain (Garima)
• To enter into other bodies in transmigration (Prapti)
• To be in all things, omni-pervasive (Prakamya)
• To be lord of all creation in omnipotence (Isatvam)
• To be everywhere in omnipresence (Vasitvam)

There are Ten secondary siddhis as described in Bhagavata Purana that include the following: 

• Being undisturbed by hunger, thirst, and other bodily appetites; 
• Hearing things far away; 
• Seeing things far away; 
• Moving the body wherever thought goes (teleportation/astral projection); 
• Assuming any form desired; 
• Entering the bodies of others; 
• Dying when one desires; 
• Witnessing and participating in the past times of the gods; 
• Perfect accomplishment of one's determination; 
• Orders or commands being unimpeded

A famous Siddhar was Tirumular, who was a Tamil mystic and writer of 6th century AD and was also one of the 18 Siddhars according to the Tamil Siddha tradition. His main work is named “Tirumantiram”, a 3,000 verse text, which is the foundation of the Southern Shaiva Siddharta School of philosophy. Another Siddhar, Bhogar (Bhoganathar), who lived between the 3rd and 5th century AD is said to have discovered the elixir of immortality – one his main works is the Pharmacognosy.

Few of those quality can easily seen in many saints in India and even some Buddhist Monks and other Parts of World.

The mystery remains…! 

Due to the closely-guarded nature of the Siddhar records, the original knowledge of this enigmatic group of saints has remained shrouded in secrecy. The question remains whether their powers were real and, if so, how they managed to attain them. Manipulating space, time and matter would require knowledge far beyond what we have today. Now Modern Science started to have hint of such capabilities can exist, it will be intresting what we can know about them.

But i feel some how it is good for Humankind and its future , may be we are not mature enough to handle such knowledge as we are struggling with Our advancements we have made so far.....

The Myopic and Damaging Politics of Sanskrit

(This article is from Ranojay Bhattacharya ; He is graduate in Sanskrit from St. Stephen's College, Delhi and a post graduate in Ancient Indian History from C.H.S JNU. He also happens to be an accomplished Tabla player. At present he is working as a research scholar at Indus Research Center, New Delhi.)

The Sanskrit debate is back, and our civil society isn’t getting enough of flashing its diplomas in subaltern studies.

To begin with, there are two major arguments against the implementation of Sanskrit in schools. The first one is a racial argument. According to it, white Aryans invaded India. The aboriginals were all black.  The Aryans were Sanskrit speakers and not only imposed Sanskrit on the aboriginals but also drove them down south. This view gained coin back in the 19th century and continues to dominate the psyche of Indians thanks to our—to quote sociologist Dipankar Gupta—“westoxicated” academicians and middle class.

The theory of racial invasion has been severely critiqued and has been mostly given up in mainstream academia. The contributions of Dr B.R Ambedkar in breaking this theory are commendable. Anyone in doubt must read his work Who Were the Shudras? to understand the untenable nature of the racial invasion theory.

This however does not mean that the invasion theory is terminated in its entirety. It has its stock of variants which are invoked to ignite communal and ethnic issues as and when required.

The second argument against Sanskrit, the Brahamnical Sanskrit theory, is one such variant, still alive and doing well. It goes way back to the 19th century and has been nicely preserved in the early Marxist Indian historiographies of D.D. Kosambi and R.S. Sharma, though their invasion theory has been sidelined. The theory that Sanskrit language represents Brahmanic hegemony and therefore is the medium of subjugation of the ancient subalterns (who are only remotely connected to the present ones: see Ambedkar’s Who Were the Shudras?) is based on the following gross observations in the Sanskrit texts, especially Sanskrit plays.

Prakrit was the language of the masses. Only upper caste men are depicted as conversing in Sanskrit. Women and lower castes regardless of their gender are depicted as conversing in Prakrit. Other than these observations, our anti-Sanskrit champions sight the prohibitions sighted in the law books like that of Manu to conclude that Sanskrit belongs to the upper castes. Well, these arguments overlook the some telling exceptions.

The Brahmana court jester depicted in Sanskrit plays invariably converses in Prakrit. Merchants and courtiers are also made to speak in Prakrit. Parivrajikas or female ascetic nuns are seen speaking in Sanskrit along with courtesans and at times queens. Children, regardless of their gender, are depicted as Prakrit speakers. The languages of the characters of the plays are decided by the characterisation, ethnicity and vocation of the protagonists, phonetic peculiarities of the audience, situations in the plays, not on caste hierarchies.

Both Sanskrit and Prakrit used in the kāvyas are of standardised form, thereby not letting one have literary privilege over the other. The fact that the kāvyas included dramas that were to be enacted on various occasions, and thus must have been accessible to a wide audience of various castes and classes, goes against the idea that Sanskrit was reserved for the upper castes. The various female and lower castes depicted as speaking in Prakrit are usually in conversation with the Sanskrit speakers. From this we can also infer that though a character is speaking in Parkrit, he/she is understands Sanskrit fully so as to be active participants in the conversations. Finally, most of the actors were usually from the so-called lower castes. This suggests that they knew how to at least converse in both the languages with ease.

In her book Imagining The Urban: Sanskrit and the City In Early India, Delhi University professor  Shonaleeka Kaul refers to American Sanskrit scholar Sheldon Pollock’s thesis, in which he argues in favour of the universal nature of Sanskrit and designates it as cosmopolitan, and also states that its linguistic affiliations were genuinely trans-regional and trans-ethnic, like its sphere of cultivation and circulation. Thus the Brahmnaic Sanskrit theory is also untenable.

The Dharmashastric texts forbid the recitation of the sacred texts by the lower castes. So restriction to it is applicable only to the religious texts. Sanskrit is not a religious language and not at all a language reserved for mainstream Hinduism. Plays, poetry, medical, astronomical and other treatises are available to substantiate this point. Sanskrit literature would also include works by the sects which disagreed with Hindu practices like the Buddhists. Asvaghosa’s Budhhacharita and Saundarananda are testimony to this. Many argue that Buddhism represented the subalterns. That might be true. However, the use of Sanskrit in a sect which represents subalterns refutes allegations about the elitist nature of Sanskrit.

Yet another argument against Sanskrit learning, which is closely associated with the above theories, is that there are languages which represent the subalterns and these do not have any connection with Sanskrit.

But   most of the languages which are being claimed as languages of the subalterns, like Tamil and Prakrit, have standardised and canonised versions. This by itself reveals the existence of hierarchies among the speakers of these languages. Therefore, the allegations that Sanskrit is subjected to must be shared by these as well. There is no language then whatsoever which does not represent social hierarchies. Even languages like Santhali represent gender and generation divisions. Moreover, tenets of Sanskrit are found in languages of all parts of the country, ranging from the North East (Assam) to the South (Tamil and Malayalam). The obvious question that arises is whether the strong tenets of the supposed subaltern languages are found all over the country or not.

So we are in a position to conclude that Sanskrit is not as “problemtic” a language as suggested by our self-serving politicians and politically inclined academicians. Introduction of Sanskrit as a language to be learnt should not face such unwarranted opposition. And if such opposition is not unwarranted, then all languages must be banned. Following such arguments, we must stop talking.

Strangely, we find most of the anti-Sanskrit pro-subaltern champions mumbling in English. Is that not a language that represents subordination or domination? Wasn’t it introduced by force? So should we renounce it? Not at all. Language has politics, but that politics is defined by who speaks in it. After all, Gandhi and Ambedkar wrote and spoke at length in the same language that was spoken by Lord Curzon and Lord Dalhousie.

Well, then does it mean that our pro-Sanskrit champions are correct in their assertions? Their arguments are acceptable only to the extent that Sanskrit is a rich language and is one of the main sources to understand our past and present culture. Other than this, repulsion to Sanskrit is a phenomenon that owes much to these very same champions.

The desire to learn Sanskrit needs to be kindled among the young. This has to be done by positive nurturing, not by imposing it in place of a European language that a child has been learning and is keenly interested in (regardless of the politics behind such interest). Doing so would only make the child repelled by Sanskrit.

There is no proper planning involved in the measures adopted to promote Sanskrit among the young. The sudden and compulsory introduction of the language does not pre-suppose that children are humans, but treats them as objects under manufacture. There should be no problem with Sanskrit as far as it is introduced as an option to choose from at the school level. However, it should not be imposed at any cost, as this can only lead to its destruction in the long run. This is only a glimpse of the lack of planning and administration in the Sanskrit world.

Most of the colleges offering an Honours degree in Sanskrit try to promote the language through any measure possible. This overlooks quality and leads to fatal implications for both students and faculty. The cut-off for taking up Sanskrit in graduation is compromised so much that it has become a lucrative option for securing a random degree by uninterested and academically disinclined students. A look at the list of students who fail in the first year finals in most of the universities makes this point clear.

The syllabus designed for Sanskrit Honours mostly aims to ensure its survival and therefore does not subscribe to  general academic standards. A university which accepts students from gurukuls (who have studied Sanskrit since childhood), those who have studied Sanskrit till higher secondary, those who have studied it till secondary, those who studied it only till eighth standard and those who have never studied it, all in one honours degree programme, reveals a lot about the superficial and arbitrary nature of the syllabus and the credentials of the planners.

The gurukul student doesn’t learn anything new and leaves cursing, while the novice and the eighth standard Sanskrit scholar graduates from the university pondering over three years of mumbo jumbo and truths behind a certificate that claims a first division. The quality of teachers coming out of such a system can well be imagined.

Even at the research level, in most of the Sanskrit departments, socio-political and economic implications of the texts being studied are not taken into account. Understanding the texts through academically accepted theoretical frameworks is hardly ever undertaken. Rather, a mystical and theological approach is engaged with. The quality of students produced by the Sanskrit departments, given their arbitrary nature and lack of planning to build aptitude, is not compatible with mainstream academics nor are they of any use outside pure academics. Thus the saviours of Sanskrit are equally responsible for its doom.

The politics around this language is completely unwarranted. A culturally rich language must be learnt and allowed to grow. The politicization of the language on communal grounds only brings forward the leanings of the politicians. Sanskrit is innocent and nobody should have a problem with its introduction in schools. But we must be careful about how we introduce it. Imposition only creates rebellion. Unwarranted imposition would lead to unwarranted rebellion. Furthermore, for the promotion of Sanskrit, its introduction in schools is not enough. There is an urgent need to revise the entire structure of Sanskrit studies in colleges and universities. Until that is done, Sanskrit will continue to be a “subaltern discipline” in relation to mainstream academics.

Though the career options for Sanskrit students are in plenty, it is finally quality that would determine access to jobs. Till the Sanskrit field does not come to terms with mainstream academic standards and market forces, the departments will continue to produce sub-standard scholars vying for the limited jobs in pure academics.

India’s Sanskrit Code

I am sure you will agree that the facts discussed in this article are very thought provoking, seems unbelievable and interesting. After reading a lot about something related to this i got compiled info from various sources This came in my mind after the seeing AssThumping in Indian Media about Sanskrit Study in Indian Schools.

Actually i am reading about Mercury Vortex Technology mainly, below info is some how i came across and thought would be sh-arable in current Scenario.

we will discuss following major points in coming text : 

1. The Vimanas, space craft and extraordinary weapons referred to in the Indian epics.
    

2. … AND it’s all true – review the evidence for yourself!
    

3. Lost fountain of knowledge
   - the Indian Emperor Ashoka and the "Secret Society of the Nine Unknown Men"
    

4. Talpade:
   - The story of the Indian Sanskrit Scholar who built and flew a mercury engine aircraft in 1895 (8 years before the Wright Brothers). He built this aircraft from specs in Sanskrit manuscripts thousands of years old.
    

5. Who is benefiting from this knowledge today?
   - So many have already benefited from these texts while the Indians themselves ignore the knowledge which is right under their nose!
    

6. Breaking the code.
   - Whoever can bring together a multidisciplinary team comprising scientists, philosophers and Sanskrit scholars could unlock the knowledge locked away in these documents and change the future of the world.

All comments appreciated.

1. Vimanas, Space craft and extraordinary weapons referred to in the Indian epics

Ancient Indian texts on Vimanas are so numerous it would take several books to relate what they have to say.

The Ramayana describes a Vimana as a double-deck, circular (cylindrical) aircraft with portholes and a dome. It flew with the speed of the wind and gave forth a melodious sound (a humming noise?).

Sanskrit texts are filled with references to Gods who fought battles in the sky using Vimanas equipped with weapons as deadly as any we can deploy in these more enlightened times. For example, there is a passage in the Ramayana which reads: 

The Puspaka car that resembles the Sun and belongs to my brother was brought by the powerful Ravan; that aerial and excellent car going everywhere at will.... that car resembling a bright cloud in the sky.

".. and the King [Rama] got in, and the excellent car at the command of the Raghira, rose up into the higher atmosphere."

In the Mahabharatra, Asura Maya had a Vimana measuring twelve cubits in circumference, with four strong wheels.The Ramayana, does have a highly detailed story in it of a trip to the moon in a Vihmana (or "Astra"), and in fact details a battle on the moon with an "Asvin" airship. This is a small bit of evidence of anti-gravity and aerospace technology used by Indians.

         The Mahabhrata records the use of other deadly weapons. 'Indra's Dart' operated via a circular 'reflector'. When switched on, it produced a 'shaft of light' which, when focused on any target, immediately 'consumed it with its power'.

In one particular exchange, Krishna, is pursuing his enemy, Salva, in the sky, when Salva's Vimana, the Saubha is made invisible in some way. Undeterred, Krishna immediately fires off a special weapon: 'I quickly laid on an arrow, which killed by seeking out sound'.

Many other terrible weapons are described, quite matter of factly, in the Mahabharata, but the most fearsome of all is the one used against the Vrishis.

The narrative records:

Gurkha flying in his swift and powerful Vimana hurled against the three cities of the Vrishis and Andhakas a single projectile charged with all the power of the Universe. An incandescent column of smoke and fire, as brilliant as ten thousands suns, rose in all its splendor. It was the unknown weapon, the Iron Thunderbolt, a gigantic messenger of death which reduced to ashesthe entire race of the Vrishnis and Andhakas.

The after-affects of this Iron Thunderbolt have an ominously recognizable ring. Apparently, those killed by it were so burnt that their corpses were unidentifiable. The survivors fared little better, as it caused their hair and nails to fall out.

2. … And its all true ?

There are Sanskrit documents which describe how to build a Vimana! 

In the Sanskrit Samarangana Sutradhara, it is written: 

Strong and durable must the body of the Vihmana be made, like a great flying bird of light material. Inside one must put the mercury engine with its iron heating apparatus underneath. By means of the power latent in the mercury which sets the driving whirlwind in motion, a man sitting inside may travel a great distance in the sky. The movements of the Vimana are such that it can vertically ascend, vertically descend, move slanting forwards and backwards. With the help of the machines human beings can fly in the air and heavenly beings can come down to earth.

The ancient Indians wrote entire flight manuals on the control of the various types of Vimanas, many of which are still in existence, and some have even been translated into English.

The Samara Sutradhara is a scientific treatise dealing with every possible angle of air travel in a Vimana. There are 230 stanzas dealing with the construction, take-off, cruising for thousand of miles, normal and forced landings, and even possible collisions with birds. In 1875, the Vaimanika Sastra, a fourth century B.C. text writtenwritten by Pandit Subbaraya Shastry which Shastry claimed was psychically delivered to him by the ancient Sage Bharadvaja. , was rediscovered in a temple in India.

It dealt with the operation of Vimanas and included information on the steering, precautions for long flights, protection of the airships from storms and lightning and how to switch the drive to "solar energy" from a free energy source which sounds like "anti-gravity." The Vaimanika Sastra (or Vymaanika-Shaastra) has eight chapters with diagrams, describing three types of aircraft, including apparatuses that could neither catch on fire nor break. It also mentions 31 essential parts of these vehicles and 16 materials from which they are constructed, which absorb light and heat; for which reason they were considered suitable for the construction of Vimanas.

This document has been translated into English and is available by writing the publisher: 

VYMAANIDASHAASTRA AERONAUTICS 

by Maharishi Bharadwaaja, 

translated into English and 

edited, printed and published by Mr. G. R.Josyer, 

Mysore, 

India, 

1979. 

Mr. Josyer is the director of the International Academy of Sanskrit Investigation, located in Mysore. There seems to be no doubt that Vimanas were powered by some sort of "anti-gravity." Vimanas took off vertically, and were capable of hovering in the sky, like a modern helicopter or dirigible. Bharadvaj  refers to no less than seventy authorities and 10 experts of air travel in antiquity! (These sources are now lost!)

Vimanas were kept in a Vimana Griha, must be a kind of hanger, and were sometimes said to be propelled by a yellowish-white liquid, and sometimes by some sort of mercury compound, though writers seem confused in this matter. It is most likely that the later writers on Vimanas, wrote as observers and from earlier texts, and were understandably confused on the principle of their propulsion. The "yellowish- white liquid" sounds suspiciously like gasoline, and perhaps Vimanas had a number of different propulsion sources, including combustion engines and even "pulse-jet" engines, who knows ? . There are so many such texts and most of them have not even been translated into English yet. But Mercury or more Promisingly Mercury Compound seems most promising as a source.

It is evident that ancient Indians flew around in these vehicles, all over Asia, and even, apparently, to South America. Writing found at Mohenjodaro (now in Pakistan) has also been found in one other place in the world: Easter Island! Was Easter Island an ancient Indian air base? 

Nuclear war 8,000 years ago

A heavy layer of radioactive ash in Rajasthan, India, covers a three-square mile area, ten miles west of Jodhpur. Scientists are investigating the site, where a housing development was being built.  

For some time it has been established that there is a very high rate of birth defects and cancer in the area under construction. The levels of radiation there have registered so high on investigators' gauges that the Indian government has now cordoned off the region. Scientists have unearthed an ancient city where evidence shows an atomic blast dating back thousands of years, from 8,000 to 12,000 years, destroyed most of the buildings and probably a half-million people. One researcher estimates that the nuclear bomb used was about the size of the ones dropped on Japan in 1945.  

The Mahabharata clearly describes a catastrophic blast that rocked the continent.  

Archeologist Francis Taylor says that etchings in some nearby temples he has managed to translate suggest that they prayed to be spared from the great light that was coming to lay ruin to the city. (Construction has halted while the site is under investigation.)

Lost fountain of knowledge

The Indian Emperor Ashoka started a "Secret Society of the Nine Unknown Men": great Indian scientists who were supposed to catalogue the many sciences. Ashoka kept their work secret because he was afraid that the advanced science catalogued by these men, culled from ancient Indian sources, would be used for the evil purpose of war, which Ashoka was strongly against, having been converted to Buddhism after defeating a rival army in a bloody battle. The "Nine Unknown Men" wrote a total of nine books, presumably one each. One of these books was titled "The Secrets of Gravitation!" This book, known to historians, but not actually seen by them dealt chiefly with "gravity control." It is presumably still around somewhere, kept in a secret library in India, Tibet or elsewhere. One can certainly understand Ashoka's reasoning for wanting to keep such knowledge a secret.  

Ashoka was also aware of devastating wars using such advanced vehicles and other "futuristic weapons" that had destroyed the ancient Indian "Rama Empire" several thousand years before.

Unknown alloys have been revealed in the ancient palm leaf manuscripts. The writer and Sanskrit scholar Subramanyam Iyer has spent many years of his life deciphering old collections of palm leaves found in the villages of his native Karnataka in southern India.

One of the palm leaf manuscripts they intend to decipher is the Amsu Bodhini, which, according to an anonymous text of 1931, contains information about the planets; the different kinds of light, heat, color, and electromagnetic fields; the methods used to construct machines capable of attracting solar rays and, in turn, of analysing and separating their energy components; the possibility of conversing with people in remote places and sending messages by cable; and the manufacture of machines to transport people to other planets!

Talpade – The Indian Sanskrit scholar who built and flew a mercury engine aircraft in 1895, 8 years before the Wright brothers! 

Shivkur Bapuji Talpade, flew an unmanned aircraft, eight years before the Wright brothers demonstrated on December 17th 1903 that it was possible for a ‘manned heavier than air machine to fly’. But, in 1895, eight years earlier, the Sanskrit scholar Shivkar Bapuji Talpade had designed a basic aircraft called Marutsakthi (meaning Power of Air) based on Vedic technology documented in ancient Sanskrit manuscripts. His demonstration flight took place before a large audience in the Chowpathy beach of Bombay. The importance of the Wright brothers lies in the fact, that it was a manned flight for a distance of 120 feet and Orville Wright became the first man to fly. But Talpade’s unmanned aircraft flew to a height of 1500 feet before crashing down and the historian Evan Koshtka, has described Talpade as the ‘first creator of an aircraft’.

This historic day in 1895 (unfortunately the actual date is not mentioned in the Kesari newspaper of Pune which covered the event) was witnessed by the famous Indian judge/ nationalist/ Mahadeva Govin-da Ranade and H H Sayaji Rao Gaekwad.

It is important to note that Talpade was no scientist, just a sanskrit scholar who had built his aircraft entirely from the rich treasury ofIndia’s Vedas.

Shivkar Bapuji Talpade was born in 1864 in the locality of Chirabazar at Dukkarwadi in Bombay. He was a scholar of Sanskrit and from his young age was attracted by the Vaimanika Sastra (Aeronautical Science) expounded by the great Indian sage Maharishi Bhardwaja.

Surprisingly according to the bi-monthly Ancient Skies published in USA, the aircraft engines being developed for future use by NASA also uses mercury bombardment units powered by Solar cells! Interestingly, the impulse is generated in seven stages. The mercury propellant is first vapourised fed into the thruster discharge chamber ionised converted into plasma by a combination with electrons broke down electrically and then accelerated through small openings in a screen to pass out of the engine at velocities between 1200 to 3000 kilometres per minute! But so far NASA has been able to produce an experimental basis only a one pound of thrust by its scientists a power derivation virtually useless. But over 100 years ago Talpade was able to use his knowledge of Vaimanika Shastra to produce sufficient thrust to lift his aircraft 1500 feet into the air!

Maharaja Sayaji Rao Gaekwad of Baroda was a great supporter of the Sciences in India, and was willing to help Talpade with funds to build his aircraft and the mercury engines.

But the success of an Indian scientist was not liked by the Imperial rulers. Warned by the British Government the Maharaja of Baroda stopped helping Talpade.

Talpade passed away in 1916 unhonoured, in his own country. It is said that the remains of the Marutsakthi (the aircraft Tapade built) were ‘sold’ to a British company by Talpade’s relatives.

Who is benefiting from this knowledge today?

Robert Oppenheimer inventor of the atom bomb was well known for studying ancient Indian texts and perhaps drew more than inspiration from them. Just before the first Atom Bom test, Oppenheimer famously quoted from the Gita saying, ‘I have become Death, Destroyer of Worlds".

It is interesting to note, that the Nazis developed the first practical pulse-jet engines for their V-8 rocket "buzz bombs." Hitler and the Nazi staff were exceptionally interested in ancient India and Tibet and sent expeditions to both these places yearly, starting in the 30's, in order to gather esoteric evidence that they did so, and perhaps it was from these people that the Nazis gained some of their scientific information!

Only a few years ago, the Chinese discovered some sanskrit documents in Lhasa, Tibet and sent them to the University of Chandrigarh to be translated. Dr. Ruth Reyna of the University said recently that the documents contain directions for building interstellar spaceships! Their method of propulsion, she said, was "anti- gravitational" and was based upon a system analogous to that of "laghima," the unknown power of the ego existing in man's physiological makeup, "a centrifugal force strong enough to counteract all gravitational pull." According to Sanatan Yogis, it is this "laghima" which enables a person to levitate.

Dr. Reyna said that on board these machines, which were called "Astras" by the text, the ancient Indians could have sent a detachment of men onto any planet, according to the document, which is thought to be thousands of years old. The manuscripts were also said to reveal the secret of "antima"; "the cap of invisibility" and "garima"; "how to become as heavy as a mountain of lead." Naturally, Indian scientists did not take the texts very seriously, but then became more positive about the value of them when the Chinese announced that they were including certain parts of the data for study in their space program! This was one of the first instances of a government admitting to be researching anti-gravity.

Whether there is any possibility in those claims of Indian Ancient Scriptures we don't know and we will never know because for us there is water on Moon only when America says it is, despite having all evidences of that.

Cracking the code 

There is a wealth of knowledge locked away in Sanskrit manuscripts, 80% of which have not even been translated yet. Talpade managed to successfully fly an aircraft in 1895 using the knowledge in these Sanskrit documents. Remember, he was not a scientist, just a Sanskrit scholar. Just imagine what could be achieved if experts in science, Sanskrit and philosophy get together to crack the code! Whoever cracks it will change the future of the world and will probably dominate it.

And there is so much uproar in India that why Should Sanskrit Should teach in Indian Schools, Perhaps the Sickular Morons are hoping them to taught it in any other country. the claims in Scriptures cannot be originated from imagination itself there must have to be some base behind of them.

I am claiming all above things are true but if there is any thing there that should be throughly examined and there is no harm in  that as already our Institutions are almost doing nothing in field of Innovation (exceptions are there indeed).

Saraswati : The Ancient River Lost in the Desert

Nearly ten thousand years ago when mighty rivers started flowing down the Himalayan slopes, western Rajasthan was green and fertile. Great civilizations prospered in the cool amiable climate on riverbanks of northwestern India. The abundant waters of the rivers and copious rains provided ample sustenance for their farming and other activities. Some six thousand years later, Saraswati, one of the rivers of great splendor in this region, for reasons long enigmatic, dwindled and dried up. Several other rivers shifted their courses, some of their tributaries were ‘pirated’ by neigbouring rivers or severed from their main courses. The greenery of Rajasthan was lost, replaced by an arid desert where hot winds piled up dunes of sand. The flourishing civilizations vanished one by one. By geological standards, these are small-scale events; for earth, in its long 4.5 billion years history, had witnessed many such changes, some of them even accompanied by wiping out of several living species. But those that occurred in northwest India took place within the span of early human history affecting the livelihood of flourishing civilizations and driving them out to other regions.

The nemesis that overtook northwestern India’s plenty and prosperity along with the disappearance of the river Saraswati, has been a subject engaging several minds over the last hundred and fifty years. However, convincing explanations about what caused all the changes were available only in the later half of the current century through data gathered by archaeologists, geologists, geophysicists, and climatologists using a variety of techniques. They have discussed and debated their views in symposium held from time to time, many of which have also appeared in several publications. Over the last thirty years, considerable volume of literature have grown on the subject and in this article some of the salient opinions expressed by various workers are presented.

Rivers constitute the lifeline for any country and some of the world’s great civilizations (Indus Valley, Mesopotamian, and Egyptian) have all prospered on banks of river systems. Hindus consider rivers as sacred and have personified them as deities and sung their praises in their religious literature, the Vedas (Rig, Yajur and Atharva), Manusmriti, Puranas and Mahabharata. These cite names of several rivers that existed during the Vedic period and which had their origin in the Himalayas. One such river Saraswati, has been glorified in these texts and referred by various names like Markanda, Hakra, Suprabha, Kanchanakshi, Visala, Manorama etc. and Mahabharata has exalted Saraswati River as covering the universe and having seven separate names. Rig veda describes it as one of seven major rivers of Vedic times, the others being, Shatadru (Sutlej), Vipasa (Beas), Askini (Chenab), Parsoni or Airavati (Ravi), Vitasta (Jhelum) and Sindhu (Indus)(Figure 1). For full 2000 years (between 6000 and 4000 BC), Saraswati had flowed as a great river before it was obliterated in a short span of geological time through a combination of destructive natural events.

Judged in the broader perspective of geological evolution, disappearance or disintegration of rivers, shifting of their courses, capture of one river by another (river piracy), steady decline of waters culminating in drying up of their beds, are all normal responses to tectonism (uplift, faulting, subsidence, tilting), earthquakes, adverse climate and other natural events. Such catastrophic events overtook Saraswati river in quick succession, within a short geological span in the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic era (Figure 1) leading to its decline and disappearance. Similar changes to drainage of rivers have occurred during earlier geological periods also, much before human evolution. A few of the south Indian rivers like the east-flowing Pennar, Palar and Cauvery draining into the Bay of Bengal and west-flowing Swarna, Netravathi and Gurupur draining into the Arabian Sea are known to have changed their courses or got dismembered due to uplift of land. Today, their former courses or palaeochannels can be seen as dry beds.

Evolution and Drainage

The river Saraswati, during its heydays, is described to be much bigger than Sindhu or the Indus River. During the Vedic period, this river had coursed through the region between modern Yamuna and Sutlej. Though Saraswati is lost, many of its contemporary rivers like Markanda, Chautang and Ghaggar have outlived it and survived till today. All the big rivers of this period –Saraswati, Shatadru (Sutlej), Yamuna derived their waters from glaciers which had extensively covered the Himalayas during the Pleistocene times. The thawing of these glaciers during Holocene, the warm period that followed, generated many rivers, big and small, coursing down the Himalayan slopes. The melting of glaciers has also been referred in Rigvedic literature, in mythological terms, as an outcome of war between God Indra and the demon Vritra. The enormity of waters available for agriculture and other occupations during those times had prompted the religiously bent ancient inhabitants to describe reverentially seven mighty rivers or ‘Sapta Sindhu’, as divine rivers arising from slowly moving serpent (Ahi), an apparent reference to the movement of glaciers.

According to geological and glaciological studies Saraswati was supposed to have originated in Bandapunch masiff (Sarawati-Rupin glacier confluence at Naitwar in western Garhwal). Descending through Adibadri, Bhavanipur and Balchapur in the foothills to the plains, the river took roughly a southwesterly course, passing through the plains of Punjab, Haryana,Rajasthan, Gujarat and finally it is believed to have debouched into the ancient Arabian Sea at the Great Rann of Kutch. In this long journey, Saraswati was believed to have had three tributaries, Shatadru (Sutlej) arising from Mount Kailas, Drishadvati from Siwalik Hills and the old Yamuna. Together, they flowed along a channel, presently identified as that of the Ghaggar river, also called Hakra River in Rajasthan and Nara in Sindh(Figure 2). The rivers, Saraswati and Ghaggar, are therefore supposed to be one and the same, though a few workers use the name Ghaggar to describe Saraswati’s upper course and Hakra to its lower course, while some others refer Saraswati of weak and declining stage, by the name Ghaggar.

Considerable philological debate has taken place about the roots of the nomenclature ‘Saraswati’, which is referred to by the name Harkhaiti or Haravaiti (in Avesta) in regions further west of India. The contentious point debated is whether the syllable Ha in the river’s name changed to Sa, later in India or Sa to Ha outside India. The choice of the name, Saraswati or Harkhaiti, depended upon whether one considered Aryans, the ancient inhabitants along this riverine system, as indigenous people who, upon their migration, carried the name Saraswati westwards where linguistic growth changed Sa soon to Ha. Apart from the nomenclature, the riverine systems of the period draining northwestern India had generated considerable discussion among the scholars about the positions (hierarchy) of the other feeder rivers, big and small, their sources and causes for their shifts which affected the supply of waters to the main rivers hastening their disintegration, e.g. Saraswati and its major tributary, Drishadvati.

Hindu mythology records several legends and anecdotes that are intertwined with the river’s geologically brief existence. Every aspect of the river’s life, right from its birth to its journey down the Himalayas and over the plains towards the Sindhu Sagara (ancient Arabian Sea), have found mention in one religious text or other, like Rigveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda,
Brahmana literature, Manusmriti, Mahabharata and the Puranas. These descriptive legends have often proved helpful in cataloguing some of the natural events of the period and linking some of them with the river’s perturbations. For example, the graphic description of a war between Gods and demons detailed in one of these texts and use of fire (Agni) in the destruction of a demon hiding in the mountains which trembled under the onslaught may possibly refer to volcanic and seismic episodes of the period. Today, more than 8000 years since the Vedas came into existence, some of the rivers mentioned therein have become defunct or have shifted from their original path. In the earlier years of study, their erstwhile courses were mainly inferred from archaeological evidences. These included sites of ancient settlements (some 1200 are known) of Harappan, Indus or Saraswati civilizations along river banks, the scripts and seals left behind, and references in Hindu mythology to river-bank Ashrams and Yagnya Kundams preserving evidences about the ritual worship practiced by the ancient inhabitants.

Over a 3000 year-long period since the Vedic times (Figure 1), the drainage pattern of many rivers had changed much from that described in the earlier religious literature. The decline of Saraswati appears to have commenced between 5000–3000 BC, probably precipitated by a major tectonic event in the Siwalik Hills of Sirmur region. Geologic studies indicate destabilizing tectonic events had occurred around the beginning of Pleistocene, about 1.7 m yrs ago in the entire Siwalik domain, extending from Potwar in Pakistan to Assam in India, resulting in massive landslides and avalanches. These disturbances, which continued intermittently, were all linked to uplift of the Himalayas. Presumably, one of these events must have severed the glacier connection and cut off the supply of glacier melt-waters to this river. As a result, Saraswati became non-perennial and dependent on monsoon rains. All its majesty and splendour of the Vedic period dwindled and with the loss of its tributaries, major and minor, Saraswati’s march to oblivion commenced around 3000 BC. Bereft of waters through separation of its tributaries, which shifted or got captured by other neighbouring river systems, Saraswati remained here and there as disconnected pools and lakes and ultimately became reduced to a dry channel bed. Lunkaransar, Didwana and Sambhar, the Ranns of Jaisalmer, Pachpadra etc., are a few of these notable lakes, some of them highly saline today, the only proof to their freshwater descent being occurrences of gastropod shells in these lake beds. With the decline and disappearance of Saraswati, the ancient civilizations, that it supported, also faded.

Inferences from geologic, remote sensing and geophysical surveys

Considerable tectonic activity connected with Himalayan orogeny continued during the Holocene and later times although uplifts to heights of 3000–4000 m were at their peak during 0.8–0.9 m yr span. The high elevation of the mountains perturbed the wind circulation patterns and induced climatic changes. Moderate terrain of earlier times became rugged and hilly affecting the channels of rivers. That was the scenario of the Himalayan region when Saraswati emerged as a major river about 9000 yr ago  and flowed in all splendour during the vedic times till its decline to an impermanent monsoon dependent state some 4000 yr later.

Bulk of earlier studies on Saraswati pertain more to the civilizations that flourished along its banks and many of the reasons attributed for the decline of this river were speculative. The impacts of middle to late Quaternary geologic events on the river systems in this region, however, had received only cursory attention. Awareness to the potentialities of geologic, meteorologic, climatic and other cyclic events, basically triggered by plate tectonism, earth’s orbital and tilt variations and similar global phenomena came up much later. Attempts to investigate their roles over the decline and desiccation of Saraswati began only since close of nineteenth century and gained momentum during the last three decades. Oldham, a geologist of Geological Survey of India, was one of the first to offer as early as 1886, geological comments about Saraswati. According to him, the present dry-bed of Ghaggar River represents Saraswati’s former course and that its disappearance was precipitated when its waters were captured by Sutlej and Yamuna. This view differed from that of several others who felt that Saraswati vanished due to lack of rainfall. However, later-day meteorological research about palaeoclimates, oxygen isotopic studies, thermouminescenct (TL) dating of wind-borne and river-borne sands in the Thar desert region, radiocarbon dating of lake-bed deposits and archaeological evidences have all indicated that during early to middle Pleistocene period this region had enjoyed wetter climate, heavy rainfall and even recurring floods and that increase in aridity commenced by mid-Holocene (5000–3000 BC) only.

Intense investigations during the last thirty years have yielded fruitful data obtained through ground and satellite based techniques as well as from palaeoseismic, and palaeoclimatic records all of which had enabled a good reconstruction of the drainage evolution in northwestern India. In addition, TL-dating of dry-bed sands and isotopic studies of the groundwater below these channels provided useful links in these reconstruction efforts. The observed river-shifts and other changes could also be correlated with specific geologic, seismic or climatic event that occurred during the mid- to late-Quaternary period. Particularly helpful were the information gathered from LANDSAT imagery about location of former river courses in the plains and beneath the Thar desert upto the Rann of Kutch, about existence of palaeo-river valleys and identifying major structural trends (lineaments) in the region. In spite of a large volume of such data, the chain of natural events during the Quaternary period has given rise to different interpretations about the former river courses.

Mainly, Indus and Saraswati, were the two major river systems of northwestern India during the Vedic period but the network of their tributaries, some of which are known to have deviated from their initial course or become non-existent today, have given scope for grouping these rivers into convenient classifications. Sridhar et al. have classified the rivers into four main groups (Figure 2) – (i) Sindhu (Indus) and its tributaries Vitasta (Jhelum) and Askini (Chenab); (ii) Shatadru (Sutlej) and its two major tributaries Vipasa (Beas) and Parasuni or Iravati (Ravi); (iii) Saraswati and its three tributaries Markanda, Ghaggar and Patialewali, in its upper reaches and a major tributary in its middle course; (iv) Drishadvati and Lavanavati. Baldev Sahai grouped them into Sutlej, Ghaggar and Yamuna systems while Yash Pal and co-workers recognized only two major systems –
the Sutlej and the Ghaggar.

Detailed evaluation of data obtained from remote sensing, geophysical, isotopic and other studies by various workers have been instrumental in sorting out many of the earlier speculative inferences and unsolved aspects of Saraswati river. Yash Pal et al. have traced the palaeochannel of this river through Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. They found that its course in these States is clearly highlighted in the LANDSAT imagery by the lush cover of vegetation thriving on the rich residual loamy soil along its earlier course. According to their findings, the river disappears abruptly in a depression in Pakistan, instead of in the sea, an observation shared by a few others also. But, digital enhancement studies of satellite IRS-1C data launched in 1995, combined with RADAR imagery (from European Remote Sensing satellite ERS-1/2) could identify subsurface features and thus recognize palaeochannels beneath the sands of Thar Desert. These channels are seen to extend upto Fort Abbas and Marot in Pakistan and appear in a line with present dry bed of Ghaggar (Figure 3). This river continues as Nara River in Sindh region and opens into the Rann of Kutch. Another study of satellite derived data has revealed no palaeochannel link between Indus and Saraswati confirming that the two were independent rivers; also, the three palaeochannels, south of Ambala, seen to swerve westwards to join the ancient bed of Ghaggar, are inferred to be tributaries of Saraswati/ Ghaggar, and one among them, probably Drishadvati (Figure 4). The latter disappeared along with Saraswati due to shifts of its feeder streams from Siwalik and Aravalli ranges as well as due to the onset of desertification of Rajasthan.

Geophysical surveys carried out by the Geological Survey of India to assess groundwater potential in Bikaner, Ganganagar and Jaisalmer districts in western Rajasthan desert areas have brought out several zones of fresh and less saline water in the form of arcuate shaped aquifers similar to several palaeochannels elsewhere in the State. That these subsurface palaeochannels belong to ancient rivers has been confirmed through studies on hydrogen, oxygen and carbon isotopes (d2H, d18O, 14C) on shallow and deep groundwater samples from these districts. The isotopic work has also indicated that there is no direct headwater connection or recharge to this groundwater from present day Himalayas. Though the antiquity of these waters and probable links to ancient rivers are thus established, the subsurface palaeochannel route beneath the desert sands obtained from hydrogeological investigations, however, differs from that derived through satellite based studies.

The waning period of Vedic civilization around 3700 BC was also the period that disrupted both Saraswati and Drishadvati. Several evidences indicate that rivers of this area changed their courses often in the last 5000 yr and one detailed study about Saraswati has identified at least four progressive westward shifts in Rajasthan, due to encroaching sands. In their evaluation of the palaeochannel imagery obtained from LANDSAT, Yash Pal et al. observed a sudden widening of Ghaggar near Patiala which, they argue, can take place only if a major tributary had joined it. According to them, ancient Shatadru or Sutlej must have been this tributary and possibly ancient Yamuna (palaeo-Yamuna) also flowed into Ghaggar, a conclusion they claim is strengthened by archaeological findings of active life that existed at one time on their banks. During a subsequent period, Shatadru (Sutlej) swung suddenly westwards near Ropar (Figure 4) to join Indus (as also Vipas/Beas and Parasuni/Ravi, its two tributaries), deserting its earlier channel to the sea. This sudden diversion of Sutlej as well as depletion of waters from Drishadvati due to loss of its feeding streams, appear to be major events that heralded the drying up of Saraswati. Several workers attribute this event to tectonism involving rise of Delhi-Hardwar ridge and uplift in the Aravallis. Capture of Shatadru (Sutlej) by a tributary of Beas through headward erosion or due to diversion of Shatadru (Sutlej) through a fault are also considered as possible reasons. Structural control over the migration of Saraswati river is also evident from studies in the Great Indian desert and adjacent parts of western Rajasthan. This area is dissected by several lineaments, some of which (e.g. Luni–Sukri lineament) were reactivated during Pleistocene–Holocene period bringing about alignment of Saraswati with Ghaggar.

The Palaeo Delta of the Great Rann

Considerable debate has taken place about Saraswati’s entry in the northern part of the Great Rann. Scholars have pointed to references in Rigveda, Manusmriti and Mahabharata about Saraswati disappearing in the sands at Vinäsana and not in the sea; but at the same time, there is also reference in some of these ancient texts about a narrow sea, possibly a creek, coming right upto Bikaner, but which disappeared during the Vedic times. Rigvedic and archaeological references describe how Saraswati supported inland and marine trade and travel and that, around 3000 BC, there was continuous flow of this river upto even the Little Rann.

The topography at the Great Rann is typically deltaic, developing usually at the mouth of rivers, confirming entry of a few rivers in the sea at this place. Neotectonism, reactivating faults and lineaments which are seen criss-crossing this region, as well as frequent seismicity, apart from Holocene sea-level changes all appear to have influenced development of a peculiar drainage topography in this area. The tilting and sinking of land resulting from the tectonic events have carved characteristic uplands (locally called Bets) representing areas of river mouth deposits, and lowlands which are sites of distributary channels. Satellite imagery, as well as detailed mapping, have revealed network of distributaries and extensive graded deposits, products of Holocene marine regression. It appears that Indus (Sindhu), Shatadru (Sutlej), Saraswati, Drishadvati (palaeo-Yamuna) and Lavanavati (possibly an ancestor of present day Luni river) had independent courses and opened into the Rann separately. According to Malik et al., at least three rivers – proto-Shatadru (Hakra), Saraswati and Drishadvati must have drained into the Rann around 2000 BC, of which only Sindhu (Indus) has survived. The original delta complex with relict channels, including that of Nara, a continuation of Ghaggar, is today better preserved on the western side but covered by wind-borne deposits on the eastern part of the Great Rann.

Yash Pal et al. argue that though in the satellite imagery Saraswati/Ghaggar appear to debouch into the sea or a lake near Marot or Beriwala (Pakistan) (Figure 3), this place is far interior, and unlikely to be a palaeo-seacoast, even allowing for rise of sea level during the Holocene marine transgression. In fact studies about coast line changes along the west coast have shown a much lower sea level some 12,000 y back which rose to the present level only later and had remained there for the last 7000 y. These findings, therefore, discount the possibilities of a seacoast at this place though they do not rule out the river’s entry into the sea that must have existed further south of this site in those times. It may be mentioned that Quaternary neotectonism has submerged vast areas of palaeodelta complex, possibly along with palaeochannels. In this context, it is relevant to take note of the observation that Saraswati’s ancient course in this region is in continuity with another dry river bed–Hakra or Sotra which can be traced through Bikaner to Bhahawalpur and Sind in Pakistan, and finally upto the Rann of Kutch. Such a course appears likely if we backtrack the delta distributaries inland, when it is noticed they connect up with the existing palaeochannels there. Some of these are actually extensions of relict channels seen beneath the sands of Thar Desert, as found out by geophysical and hydrogeological surveys.

While tectonism had certainly a major role in shaping the fate of Saraswati and other rivers, this could not have been the only agent bringing about various changes that led to its downfall. Even though the role of climate on the disappearance of Saraswati system was underestimated by some of the earlier workers, undoubtedly it must have exercised considerable sway during the Holocene, a period during which major climatic swing has been noted globally. It is well known that variation in earth’s orbit and tilt of earth’s axis affect the earth’s climate (Milankovitch and albedo forces). A drastic weather change related to these phenomena had peaked around 7000 BC. Recent studies have shown that the onset of an arid climate occurred in two pulses –
at 4700–3700 and at 2000–1700 BC26, both of which had fairly wide impact not only in India in the desertification of western Rajasthan but in other countries also, like Africa in the development of Saharan and Nubian deserts. The desertification is thought to have occurred 5400 y ago (3400 BC) and its onset greatly affected the monsoon rains and consequently the river systems too. The change from wetter to arid condition destroyed steadily the vegetation, which in turn affected soil moisture, its evaporation, atmospheric circulation and precipitation, all important links in the monsoon evolution chain and, ultimately the climate over the region. However, a recent study48 of water-table fluctuations and radiocarbon estimates from the Lunkansar Lake deposit do not support the views about aridity around 3500 BC, the period when Saraswati and Indus Valley culture were thought to have collapsed. The chronology emerging from these studies show that the once perennial lakes had ceased to be so and they had dried and desiccated more than 1500 y before the dated collapse of the civilization.

Computer based climate simulation studies, to reproduce the changes to solar heating of the atmosphere due to variations in earth’s tilt and orbit have shown that climate-induced weakening of monsoons over India and north Africa led to desertification in a span of just 300 years. Needless to point out, when one traces the topographic evolution of a place, the influence of a combination of many natural phenomena can be recognized in its build up. It becomes, therefore, very difficult to point out any one reason for some of the major changes to the topography or river systems. The climatic swing that led to sweeping changes in northwestern India was triggered by variations in earth’s orbit and tilt and these departures are known to recur periodically. The latter should, therefore, rise the possibilities for a favourable orientation of these parameters of earth at some future time to initiate climatic conditions for a re-greening of the
Rajasthan desert, rejuvenation of the dry river beds and, hopefully, for a rebirth of Saraswati, like Phoenix out of the ashes.